Diet diversity and seasonality of robust capuchins (Sapajus sp.) in a tiny urban forest.

Capuchins are omnivorous neotropical primates that can survive in urban forests by supplementing their diet with human foods. However, few studies have analyzed the impact of these resources on their diet diversity and feeding seasonality. We aimed to assess the patterns of foraging, feeding, and diet diversity of urban capuchins (Sapajus sp.) that live in a tiny urban forest in Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, where humans frequently feed them. We predicted that forest degradation and human foods could decrease diet diversity, though capuchins may, conversely, reduce their selectivity and expand their food repertoire. We followed the animals from dawn to dusk between May 2018 and April 2019 to list and quantify the species and items consumed. We used diversity indexes and cluster analysis to understand similarities and differences in the diet composition over the study period. We recorded 58 plant species (being 14 exotics) consumed by the monkeys, and nonconventional items, with low diet diversity overall. The diet consisted mainly of plants (69.8%), animal matter (20.6%), and processed foods (9.5%). Capuchins consumed more food from the anthropic environment (57.5%) than from the forest (42.4%), while their food from the forest included more invertebrates (47.8%) than fruits (40%). The cluster analysis showed two main groups of feeding months, in accordance with the seasons of high and low food production in local forests. Monkeys did not vary the frequencies of foraging or feeding between seasons, probably due to the omnipresent availability of human foods. Despite the high consumption of human foods, capuchins responded to the seasonality of the forest, expanding their feeding diversity in the drier period. Future studies should analyze the correspondence between food consumption and local phenology, as well as the potential role of capuchins as seed dispersers in this depauperate community.

Urine washing in urban robust capuchin monkeys (Sapajus sp.): The relation with visitors.

In primates, urine washing (UW) is a behavior in which individuals intentionally deposit urine on their bodies. Social and nonsocial hypotheses have been proposed to explain the adaptive function of this behavior. For capuchins, different functions have been assigned for UW, suggesting it as a flexible behavior, but studies have been mainly in captivity. However, no investigations have been performed in urban environments, where these animals can modify their behavior. Our goal was to study UW in a semi-provisioned group of an introduced unknown robust capuchin species (Sapajus sp.) living in a tiny urban fragment in Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, where they have contact with humans. We assessed the influence of social (sexual, agonistic, and anointing behaviors) and environmental (temperature, relative air humidity, height of the monkeys in the trees, number of people present in the fragment, and human-monkey interactions) variables, the influence of behavior before and after UW, and the influence of sex-age classes, on the frequency of UW. We observed 75 records of UW in 300 h of observations, where urine was mostly deposited on hands and passed on to feet (95%). There were no significant differences in the frequency of the behavior between sex-age classes nor in the behaviors before and after UW. Around 50% of UW took place in the late morning and we found no correlation between UW and temperature, relative air humidity, nor the heights of the monkeys in the trees. However, we found a significant association between UW and the daily number of people in the fragment, but not between UW and human-monkey interactions, anointing, agonisms, and sexual behavior. Our study increases the scope of UW flexibility by identifying the presence of visitors affecting the occurrence of this behavior. We discussed different possibilities through which people could influence the capuchins to display UW.

Stress behaviors in captive robust capuchins: Effects of humidity, visitors, management and sex.

Wild robust capuchins (Sapajus spp.) are omnivorous neotropical primates that live in relatively large groups in extensive home and daily ranges with activity budgets dominated by traveling, foraging, and object manipulation, meaning that enclosed spaces can result in significant deprivation. Space restriction, manipulation by caretakers, and the chronic presence of visitors, can disrupt the animals' welfare, altering their normal activities and inducing stress behaviors. We aimed to study the behavioral repertoire, activity budget, and frequency of stress behaviors (stereotypes and self-directed behaviors) between two captive groups of robust capuchins in a public zoo in Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, to understand how much their behavioral homeostasis has been affected. More specifically, we assessed the effect of environmental variables (temperature, relative air humidity, number of visitors, and food management) and sex on the frequency of stress behaviors. Capuchins showed a high frequency of stress behaviors, which represented around 10% of their activity budget (though the frequencies were unevenly distributed among the individuals), and traveling was positively correlated with stereotypes. We found that high relative air humidity appears to induce more stereotypes, high numbers of visitors appear to increase self-directed and vigilance behaviors and reduce stereotypes, food management can increase both kinds of stress behaviors, and females demonstrated more frequent stress behaviors than males, but individual variation may play a role. Capuchins in the group with a greater space restriction showed more stereotypes, while those in the group with more individuals showed more self-directed behaviors. Our study shows that the stress behaviors performed by the capuchins are complex and it is difficult to determine a single cause, because many traits could be involved. Despite that, this study enlightens us to direct some approaches to help these animals to meet their ecological and social needs, mitigating their stress.

SEROLOGICAL DETECTION OF HEPATITIS A VIRUS IN FREE-RANGING NEOTROPICAL PRIMATES (Sapajus spp., Alouatta caraya) FROM THE PARANÁ RIVER BASIN, BRAZIL.

Nonhuman primates are considered as the natural hosts of Hepatitis A virus (HAV), as well as other pathogens, and can serve as natural sentinels to investigate epizootics and endemic diseases that are of public health importance. During this study, blood samples were collected from 112 Neotropical primates (NTPs) (Sapajus nigritus and S. cay, n = 75; Alouatta caraya, n = 37) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin, Brazil, located between the States of Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul. Anti-HAV IgG antibodies were detected in 4.5% (5/112) of NTPs, specifically in 6.7% (5/75) of Sapajus spp. and 0% (0/37) of A. caraya. In addition, all samples were negative for the presence of IgM anti-HAV antibodies. These results suggest that free-ranging NTPs were exposed to HAV within the geographical regions evaluated.

SEROLOGICAL DETECTION OF HEPATITIS A VIRUS IN FREE-RANGING NEOTROPICAL PRIMATES (Sapajus spp., Alouatta caraya) FROM THE PARANÁ RIVER BASIN, BRAZIL

Nonhuman primates are considered as the natural hosts of Hepatitis A virus (HAV), as well as other pathogens, and can serve as natural sentinels to investigate epizootics and endemic diseases that are of public health importance. During this study, blood samples were collected from 112 Neotropical primates (NTPs) (Sapajus nigritus and S. cay, n = 75; Alouatta caraya, n = 37) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin, Brazil, located between the States of Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul. Anti-HAV IgG antibodies were detected in 4.5% (5/112) of NTPs, specifically in 6.7% (5/75) of Sapajus spp. and 0% (0/37) of A. caraya. In addition, all samples were negative for the presence of IgM anti-HAV antibodies. These results suggest that free-ranging NTPs were exposed to HAV within the geographical regions evaluated.

Serological evidence for Saint Louis encephalitis virus in free-ranging New World monkeys and horses within the upper Paraná River basin region, Southern Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) primarily occurs in the Americas and produces disease predominantly in humans. This study investigated the serological presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. METHODS: From June 2004 to December 2005, sera from 133 monkeys (Alouatta caraya, n=43; Sapajus nigritus, n=64; Sapajus cay, n=26) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin region and 23 blood samples from farm horses were obtained and used for the serological detection of a panel of 19 arboviruses. All samples were analyzed in a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay; positive monkey samples were confirmed in a mouse neutralization test (MNT). Additionally, all blood samples were inoculated into C6/36 cell culture for viral isolation. RESULTS: Positive seroreactivity was only observed for SLEV. A prevalence of SLEV antibodies in sera was detected in Alouatta caraya (11.6%; 5/43), Sapajus nigritus (12.5%; 8/64), and S. cay (30.8%; 8/26) monkeys with the HI assay. Of the monkeys, 2.3% (1/42) of A. caraya, 6.3% 94/64) of S. nigritus, and 15.4% (4/26) of S. cay were positive for SLEV in the MNT. Additionally, SLEV antibodies were detected by HI in 39.1% (9/23) of the horses evaluated in this study. Arboviruses were not isolated from any blood sample. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirmed the presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. These findings most likely represent the first detection of this virus in nonhuman primates beyond the Amazon region. The detection of SLEV in animals within a geographical region distant from the Amazon basin suggests that there may be widespread and undiagnosed dissemination of this disease in Brazil.

Serological evidence for Saint Louis encephalitis virus in free-ranging New World monkeys and horses within the upper Paraná River basin region, Southern Brazil

Introduction Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) primarily occurs in the Americas and produces disease predominantly in humans. This study investigated the serological presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. Methods From June 2004 to December 2005, sera from 133 monkeys (Alouatta caraya, n=43; Sapajus nigritus, n=64; Sapajus cay, n=26) trap-captured at the Paraná River basin region and 23 blood samples from farm horses were obtained and used for the serological detection of a panel of 19 arboviruses. All samples were analyzed in a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay; positive monkey samples were confirmed in a mouse neutralization test (MNT). Additionally, all blood samples were inoculated into C6/36 cell culture for viral isolation. Results Positive seroreactivity was only observed for SLEV. A prevalence of SLEV antibodies in sera was detected in Alouatta caraya (11.6%; 5/43), Sapajus nigritus (12.5%; 8/64), and S. cay (30.8%; 8/26) monkeys with the HI assay. Of the monkeys, 2.3% (1/42) of A. caraya, 6.3% 94/64) of S. nigritus, and 15.4% (4/26) of S. cay were positive for SLEV in the MNT. Additionally, SLEV antibodies were detected by HI in 39.1% (9/23) of the horses evaluated in this study. Arboviruses were not isolated from any blood sample. Conclusions These results confirmed the presence of SLEV in nonhuman primates and horses from southern Brazil. These findings most likely represent the first detection of this virus in nonhuman primates beyond the Amazon region. The detection of SLEV in animals within a geographical region distant from the Amazon basin suggests that there may be widespread and undiagnosed dissemination of this disease in Brazil. .

Group size and composition of black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) on the Upper Paraná River, Southern Brazil.

In social mammals, group size, sex and age-class composition are important parameters that are required to understand population dynamics and determine conservation strategies. These parameters are known only poorly for the black-and-gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya). Here, we studied groups of A. caraya on islands and adjacent banks of the Upper Paraná River of southern Brazil, to examine variability in group size and composition. This location is important for this species because of the high density of howlers. Group size was large, varying from 6 to 18 individuals (average = 11.5, standard deviation = 3.3, n = 13). Groups were multi-male, and adult females outnumbered adult males. On average, groups had the following ratios: 1 adult male: 0.5 subadult male: 1.9 adult females: 0.9 juveniles: 0.5 infants. The ratio of 0.2 infant: 1 adult female is less than that in other species, but typical of other studies of the black-and-gold howlers. Here, we discuss environmental and social pressures that may impose structure on large groups of howlers in terms of strategies for living in high densities. We also compare these data with those of the area of sympatry shared between A. caraya and A. clamitans, and suggest that competition may occur between the two species and that reduced fitness may be a consequence of mixed groups.

Wild mixed groups of howler species (Alouatta caraya and Alouatta clamitans) and new evidence for their hybridization.

Mixed species groups and hybridization are common among primates, yet these phenomena are rare and poorly understood for the genus Alouatta. In this study, we describe the composition of howler groups in a sympatric area of Alouatta caraya and Alouatta clamitans and provide new evidence for the occurrence of interspecific hybridization. Between October 2006 and April 2007, 11 howler groups were located in a 150-ha forest fragment: two monospecific groups of A. caraya, two monospecific groups of A. clamitans, two groups composed of A. clamitans and hybrid morphotypes (A. caraya x A. clamitans), and five groups composed of both species together with hybrid morphotypes (mixed species groups). The average size of the studied groups was 5.2 +/- 1.2 individuals. Monospecific and mixed groups (mixed species groups + groups with hybrids) did not differ significantly in their sizes. In total, the sex/age ratios were 1 AM:1.5 AF:0.2 SAM:0.5 JUV:0.2 INF and the species ratios were 1 A. caraya:1.6 A. clamitans:0.4 A. caraya x A. clamitans. The ratio of immatures to 1AF was larger in the monospecific groups (0.75 immatures:1AF) than in mixed groups (0.29 immatures:1AF), possibly reflecting a lower viability in the latter. Two features of the hybrid morphotypes of the upper Paraná River support their status as true hybrids: the polymorphism of their coloration patterns and the extremely female-biased sex ratio. The effects of Haldane's rule and population fragmentation on the interactions between both species are discussed.

Paracoccidioidomycosis in wild monkeys from Paraná State, Brazil.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection in wild New World monkeys (Cebus sp. and Alouatta caraya). A total of 93 animals (Cebus sp., n = 68 and Alouatta caraya, n = 25) were captured in the Paraná River basin, Paraná State, Brazil and the serum samples were analyzed by ELISA and immunodiffusion using P. brasiliensis gp43 and exoantigen as antigens, respectively. The seropositivity observed by ELISA was 44.1% and 60% for Cebus sp. and A. caraya, respectively, while by immunodiffusion test Cebus sp. showed positivity of 2.9% only. No significant difference was observed in relation to age and sex. This is the first report of paracoccidioidomycosis in wild capuchin monkeys and in wild-black and golden-howler monkeys. The high positivity to P. brasiliensis infection in both species evaluated in our study and the positivity by immunodiffusion test in Cebus sp. suggest that natural disease may be occurring in wild monkeys living in paracoccidioidomycosis endemic areas.

Sympatry between Alouatta caraya and Alouatta clamitans and the rediscovery of free-ranging potential hybrids in Southern Brazil.

Records of sympatry between Alouatta caraya and A. clamitans are rare despite their extensive range overlap. An example of their current sympatry and the rediscovery of free-ranging potential hybrids of A. caraya and A. clamitans in the forests of the Upper Paraná River, Southern Brazil, are reported in this paper. Eight groups were observed in the study area: five monospecific groups of A. caraya, two of A. clamitans, and a group containing two adult males and two adult females of A. caraya and a sub-adult male and two adult females identified as Alouatta sp. The color of the last three individuals was a mosaic between the two species; this is consistent with previously described variations in museum specimens collected in the Paraná River in the 1940s that had been identified as potential hybrids. The results from this study emphasize the need for scientific studies in the region of the Ilha Grande National Park, one of the few regions in the Paraná River that currently harbors both howler species.

Use of traps to capture black and gold howlers (Alouatta caraya) on the Islands of the upper Paraná River, Southern Brazil.

Howlers (genus Alouatta) are widely captured with the use of anesthetic projectiles; however, no capture protocol involving the use of traps has been described to date. In the present study we describe the first efficient capture program for black and gold howlers (Alouatta caraya) using traps, which was implemented on the islands of the upper Paraná River in southern Brazil. We constructed two trap models with either manual or automatic activation (trap A with two entrances and guillotine-type doors; trap B with one entrance and a guillotine-type door). The traps were suspended in the canopy by means of vertical climbing techniques, and were baited regularly and abundantly with bananas and mangoes. We captured 70 howlers (86% using manual activation and 14% using automatic activation) on four different islands. We restrained 41 of these animals and measured their body mass, which averaged 5.30 kg+/-1.79. Given our results, we suggest that the system described in the present study represents an alternative capture program for howlers in areas that have low food diversity and no other mammal species that will compete for the bait, as has been observed in riparian environments, islands, and forest fragments.